2,000 word Conflict Analysis and Research Proposal

2,000 word Conflict Analysis and - Research Proposal Example To many, natural resources are a vital resource for development and seems as the sole sure path to poverty reduction and economic growth. The increased awareness of the correlation between natural resources, security, and conflict continues to serve as reinforcement for the perception that natural resources are now a security issue (Bannon and Collier 2003 ). While appreciating that there are other drivers, this proposal suggests a detailed research to establish the interrelationship between distribution of economic resources and conflict. A succinct understanding of this relationship is considered necessary especially when formulating and implementing policies to mitigate the risk of conflict whether within a country or region. Limited knowledge of the correlation has resulted into misaligned policies and strategies that fail to achieve their objectives on prevention of conflicts related to natural resources distribution. The contemporary society is concerned that tension and conflicts continue to persist despite the formulation and implementation of conflict prevention policies in various world regions and countries. Much has been done to combat conflicts although researchers have shown that tensions and threat of violence are still high. An understanding of the correlation between conflicts and various drivers is considered as a vital step towards sustainable conflict prevention strategies and policies (Odhiambo 2011). It is necessary that the society adopt strategies that comprehensively address regional conflicts regardless of the dynamics of the contemporary world. All aspects of life are experiencing fast changes largely because of globalization. This research proposal in an attempt to establish the linkage between natural economic resources and conflicts presents a succinct literature review, research methodology, and possible results in subsequent sections. The literature refers to earlier re search studies to give insight on how different regions and

( KEVs ) Key Environmental Variables of a medium enterprise in a given Essay

( KEVs ) Key Environmental Variables of a medium enterprise in a given industry - Essay Example In that sense, Danone aims at providing natural high quality food to the global market that would assist in building health through all stages of life. As a result, this would cultivate a taste of things that are good for the customers. Danone Groups also has been able to provide products that are adaptable to all the other cultures. This internationalization strategy has been made possible through scientific research. The firm has been able to curve out a big market share globally by embracing various technologies that have enabled the customers to shop for food products through tablet computers and smartphones, as well as other mobile devices. Moreover, the firm has also incorporated traditional sales channels that include telephone, physical stores, and catalogues (Danone, 2013). With regard to the environmental responsibility, the firm is looking for raw materials that are cheaper outside their own market, in addition to being eco-friendly. This means that the firm guarantees the quality, safety, and traceability of the raw materials. Moreover, the firm has come up with policies that would help track and improve working conditions and environmental effects of farming (Danone, 2013). As part of its globalization strategy, the business entity has ensured long-term protection and renewal of water reserves being operated by the group. According to Danone (2012), the Group is also trying to expand its operations globally by having a constant consultation process with various stakeholders at both national and international levels. The consultation initiatives comprises of the government representatives in the country of operation, manufacturers, the civil society, and the environmental bodies, particularly where the aim is to provide clear information for the consumers or responsible behavior in the field of environment

Fairways by Robert Robertson Essay Example for Free

Fairways by Robert Robertson Essay In the United States civil rights movements had been one of the most important groups which expressed the right of a person in defending their belief regarding different aspects in life such as gender, class, race and the likes. Looking back at the situation of the United States during the time of civil rights movements of Martin Luther King Jr., people of color were very active in presenting the whole nation that they are not slaves. They have fought for many, many years until the time they were able to make the whole United States of America and the whole world the rights of a human being should not be limited by the skin color that he or she has. A human being is a human being not matter what color, race or language he or she knows. In the recent times, it is known that the problem with race is not as evidently seen in the eyes of other people. Most of the discrimination is taking place within small groups and communities similar to what happened to six golfers who were living in Beaumont Texas. It is known the golf is a sport that only needs the ability to swing a ball from its place. There are no levels of intelligence, height, weight, color, and the likes are needed in order to play well in the game of golf. Therefore, every one does have the right to play in any place that they want. Individuals must not be limited by the fact that they are African Americans wanting to play and enjoy the sport. In June 14 1955, a group of six African Americans have filled a complaint against Tyrell and Central Parks, a golf club in Beaumont Texas. The six individuals were all members of the Beaumont Golf Club. They were all requesting for access in order for them to pay in the Tyrell and Central Parks. However, the park was strictly limited only to white colored people and restricts African-Americans due to the issue of racial segregation during those times. The group needed to travel 18 miles in order to play 18 holes of Golf in Houston in order to enjoy the sport. As this situation happened, the group has realized the unfair treatment which was provided to them. Therefore, they have campaigned for equal rights. As they went to the government to present their complaint, they have seen that there are actions which had taken in order to clarify this type of discrimination. There are numerous recommendations to study variety of aspects with regards to providing golfing facilities in colored golfing parks. But then, no actions had been taken in order to formalized these types of demands from the people. In the statement provided by the Mayor he has stated that, â€Å"This council is would always act for the best of the people in the city†¦. However â€Å"would not vote to do anything that might cause strife for the people who life there† (Robertson, 2005, p. 4). In seeing this view point of a person who has not experienced racial segregation, there is a great feeling that discrimination is truly evident in the lines provided by the Mayor. As a authority, he should know that the scope of being equality must be experienced by the many people. Satisfaction with regards to the life of each individual must be done without harming other people. In the view of providing the entertainment of the people, colored people must be able to enjoy what other people could freely and easily get pleasure from. As stated in the book in the Prologue there are variety of aspects in which the colored parks do not provide. One of those things was the golfing facilities which were demanded by the Beaumont Golf Club. I n limiting the possibility of enjoying the sport in the easiest and fastest way (Tyrell and Central Park) African-Americans seems to be limited in the aspect of attaining quality time through a high level of effort of traveling 18 miles just to golf. Therefore, attaining entertainment seemed to be more difficult for African Americans. Beaumont Texas is a community in which was mainly occupied with white Americans. All the economic power which had been solely lying on the white community thus leading to the point that political power is also given to the white Americans. With such situation, the people who are leading the community are mostly leading to the bias of the white Americans. Such bias is experienced by the African Americans through an aspect such as having a decent gold club to play in. In the situation of the people the six people it is evident that inequality attained through having racial segregation in the community. The group of people who have proposed the concept racial segregation had positive thoughts with regards to the concept but obviously, the people who were leading the community and the whole country does not think of the good of all the people but all those that they could personally benefit from. In conclusion, the people who were in the government of Beaumont Texas during those times were simply attaining the best for the people of the community which were the white Americans. Given that most of the populations were white Americans as well as the leaders of the community the priority of having a satisfactory life must not only be provided to the whites but also the to African Americans. All of these people are equally paying their taxes to the government without hesitations or limit. Therefore, equal rights must be given to them. It is only proper, that the six African American golfers were able to fight for their right to enjoy what they deserve. References Robertson, R. (2005). Fair ways: how six black golfers won civil rights in Beaumont, Texas. Texas: Texas AM University Press.

Operational Management At Pepsi Cola Company Commerce Essay

Operational Management At Pepsi Cola Company Commerce Essay At present new product decision is taken by the top management. Demand for new product is investigated by production manager- terms of raw material, machinery operations, and quality. Fro this purpose he can get guidance from constructions. Finance department evaluates financial viability. Sample production is conducted. Response from buyer in terms of satisfaction and companys ability to meet the requirement helps in deciding to produce new product. Process Design: In the company process is continuous supply of concentrate is critical but process can be automated. Process is flexible and production on plant can be changed within one hour. Production on plant can be changed within one hour. Production is of large scale and covers a wide area for the distribution of the product. Facility Design and Layout: Facility design and physical layout of plant, supporting facilities and building is provided by the parent company that is PEPSI COLA International. Transportation costs with the plant is minimum. Physical layout provides maximum utilization of available space by optimizing costs. Inventory: Company is not using the quantitative methods for calculating economic order quantity, reorder point, safety stock and annual inventory cost. The company does not give importance to control inventory cost. Lead time is usually 2 days an in an exceptional case it can be up to 4-5 days. this also one reason that EOQ, ROP, lead time are calculated using qualitative techniques, by estimates of experienced managers. Martial Requirement Planning: Company produces beverages and uses Sugar, Carbon Dioxide, Ammonia and concentrate as raw material. Sot drink is a seasonal product. Most of the sale is done during summer season. Concentrate is bought from the franchiser PepsiCo. Sugar is bought directly from the sugar manufacturers of the area. CO2 is prepared within the premises, which is enough for the full capacity of two plants. When during samara 4 plants are in working, CO2 is purchased from the outside suppliers. Company Profile: Pepsi co. is infect a corporation listed in the New York Stock Exchange USA. It is the owner of globe products like Pepsi Cola, Team, Marinda etc. Being owner of the products they give the rights of manufactures of its products to different countries. All over the world, the products are standard. If you buy a Pepsi from a remote area like Talamba and from Washington D.C., you will find absolutely same taste and color. Because Pepsi Co. has strict quality standards. And the franchisees have to follow these standards. Otherwise they have to face penalties from the real owners of the product. In Pakistan there are 10 units of Pepsi cola are working. Each unit has its own license of production. And each unit has its own territory in which it can sell its products. No unit can interfere in the area of other unit. Brief History: The company was introduced in 1967 as a (Pvt.) Limited company. It started its production in 1968. In the early stages it was famous with the name of 7-up factory. Because 7-up was its first product. The other brands were introduced after 7-up. Pepsi Cola, Marinda and Green Marinda have been different products of Shamim and Co. Since its introduction. At present 7-up, Pepsi Cola and Marinda are being produced. Company Characteristics: Shamim Co. is the biggest soft drink manufacturing unit in Pakistan with its four plants having full capacity of 50,000 crates per day. Company covers area of Southern Punjab including Sahiwal, Mianwali, Rajan Pur, Bahawalnagar and Khan Pur. Departmentalization: There are six departments in the company, which are production, Marketing, Finance, Sales, Shipping administration and personnel. In each deptt. there is a manger which is responsible for the working of his department to the general manager. A manager has an assistant manager. After Ass. A manager their are Shift Incharge in production and supervisors in sales. They control the activities of operatives. Product Planning: Shamim and company works under licensee of Pepsi Co., as explained earlier. At present Shamim and Company does not possess the ownership of any product. All of its products are originally owned by Pepsi Co. New York. Franchiser gives concentrate and sets quality standards for it products. Company just follows these standards and produces beverages. Uptill now the company has not produced any product of its own and there is no concept of product planning in future as well, because the management considers it a very theme to introduce a new brand of their own. In the brand like Pepsi Cola and 7-up are selling in the market like hot cackes. Meanwhile the people in Pakistan are reluctant to purchase Pakistan branded beverages and we dont find any successful domestic brands of soft drinks in Pakistan. Thats why the management does not have any motivation to do product planning. In a dynamic market the company may expand, add or relocate new facilities, which means that location decisions are made the life of a company. Location decisions are important due to following reasons. Competition. Cost. Hidden effects. Factors that effect the location decisions are Market related factors. Tangible Cost factors.  · Transportation.  · Labor availability and costs.  · Energy availability and costs.  · Water availability and costs.  · Site and construction cost.  · Taxes. Intangible Factors.  · Legal regulation.  · Community attitude.  · Expansion potential.  · Living conditions. Operations Planning: Product Planning: Shamim and company works under licensee of Pepsi Co., as explained earlier. At present Shamim and Company does not possess the ownership of any product. All of its products are originally owned by Pepsi Co. New York. Franchiser gives concentrate and sets quality standards for it products. Company just follows these standards and produces beverages. Up till now the company has not produced any product of its own and there is no concept of product planning in future as well, because the management considers it a very theme to introduce a new brand of their own. In the brand like Pepsi Cola and 7-up are selling in the market like hot cackes. Meanwhile the people in Pakistan are reluctant to purchase Pakistan branded beverages and we dont find any successful domestic brands of soft drinks in Pakistan. Thats why the management does not have any motivation to do product planning. In a dynamic market the company may expand, add or relocate new facilities, which mean that location decisions are made over the life of a company. Location decisions are important due to following reasons. Competition. Cost. Hidden effects. Factors that effect the location decisions are Market related factors. Tangible Cost factors.  · Transportation.  · Labor availability and costs.  · Energy availability and costs.  · Water availability and costs.  · Site and construction cost.  · Taxes. Intangible Factors.  · Legal regulation.  · Community attitude.  · Expansion potential.  · Living conditions. Location Design Location of manufacturing operations can have a graet impact on operating cost, profit and price at which products are offered. As far allocation is concerned the companys strategy consists of selecting the location from which the potential market will be served. The location of facility involves the commitment of resources to long range plan.. Location of industry is selected on the basis of  Ã‚ µ Availability of raw material on cheap prices and maximization of profits.  Ã‚ µ Proximity to potential customers.  Ã‚ µ In plant location objective is to minimize the sum of all costs, not only todays but long term cotsts. There may arise four questions for facility aspects. 1. Types of facilities needed. 2. Location of facilities. 3. Design / Layout of facilities. 4. Capacity planning. Company Location: Shamim and company is located near MDA chowk Multan in province of Punjab. The site of company is not of some strategic value. Because Shamim and Co. covers a large area of Southern Punjab. So there is no importance of site with reference to the other cities of this area. Any way; site of the company is considerable for Multan. Process Design and Facility Layout Having done the location selection company design a building, select the appropriate process technology and equipment and arranges it in away so that it has greatest potential to meet the strategic demand of organization. The type of operations to be performed in a facility, influence the facilitys needs and layouts. Equipment involved effects the layout. Facilities must be designed for the efficient operations in the organization. Layout for Operations: Facility is designed in numerous ways to support this work to be done within each facility numerous factors must be considered. Amount of available space and its shape. Design objective is very imprint. some of layouts are:  · Retail layout.  · Office layout.  · Distribution and ware house layout.  · Manufacturing layout. Manufactering Process: In Shamim Co. manufactering process is as follows; Water Extraction: Raw water is extracted from the sources. It is treated to remove its hardness. Here water is tested in lab to check it harness. If water has some Co3 or Hco3 it is drained and again soft water is used in the preperation of syrup. Preperation of Syrup: Syrup is prepared with sugar, concentrate and water. this syurup is heated upto 90 C to get it pasturized. this hot syrup is collled down and stored in the tanks. Here lab testing of syrup is done to check its quality standard. Production: Syrup is sent to Carbo Cooler. During flow of syrup from tanks to Carbo Coolers, Ammonia and Carbon Dioxide are mixed in the syrup. In production process empty is feeded from on side. This emplty is washed and light check is done to see quality of washing. From Carbo Cooler syrup goes to the Filler. At filler syrup is filled in the empty bottles, and Cap Crown is fixed on the bottols. Here and operater looks after the filling process. He can increase, derease or even stop production speed accordingly. Filled bottols are tested in lab. by taking samples. Light check is done to check the level of syrup in bottles and chek some solid partieals. The overfilled or underfilled bottols are separated. If some partical is found in some bottlol it is also separated. After light check bottols passed under a printer and code is printed on the bottoles, with this code the date of manufactering and shift time can be identified. When all checking process is done the bottlols are cased in the crates. The whole process of manufactaring is automatic. It required a little supervision. Raw material is put from one side and filled bottles come out of the process. Support Facilities: Support facilities are carried out in such a way that the direct operations can function smoothely. support facilities are essential for operations. Some of departments to be considered in layour are  · Inventories, material and suppliers.  · Tool room.  · Inspection and quality control.  · First aid.  · Maintenance.  · Safety and security.  · Clerical and bookkeeping.  · Tube well.  · Airconditioning plant.  · Transformer.  · Equipment for work shop.  · Bailing press.  · Parking facility.  · Canteen.  · Emergency situation analysis. Issuance of Different Items: When production department requires a particular item from inventory, they fill the requisition slip. One copy is kept at the store and a carbon copy is kept by the production deptt. This slip includes the quantity issued, stock register page number, iteem code, This slip is signed by the production manager. Inventory items are issued on these slip. Control of Inventory: At the end of each month, store prepares a monthly consumption report. This report includes the detail of all the inventory items which were consumed by the production deptt. of Shamim Co. during the month. In this way the inventory is controlled in the Shamim Company. Quality Control: The quality control should 1. Define specific product and service quality level requirements. 2. Determine the relationship of design and process characteristric to output quality and related process requirement. 3. Dewtermine methods, personnel and equipment for measuring quality. 4. Measure and record the quality achieved. 5. Trigger corrective processess when actual quality varies from the acceptable quality. Specification of quality requirements begins in market research continue as part of the product design activity, and culminates in the quality specification and design subsystem output. That output defineates the specific product or service attribute that effect the quality and must be assured. The Quality Specification And Design Subsystem The activities of this subsysten are integral part of the product design activities, its objectives are to be determine that the new design output 1. Will meet the customer need. 2. Will operate under end use conditions. 3. Can be produced or provided given the organizions capabilities. 4. Will function with the specified level of reliability interms of minimum means time between failure. 5. Will require less than a specified amount of maintaince hours and material costs operating hour. 6. Can be required within a certain time frame. Quality Assurance: Quality assurance is the title given to those management activities and systems required to provide assurance that the over all quality controlled task is being carried out. The quality asssurance system is the aggregate quality management system. It interfaces with other general management system performong similar functions relative to the organizations financial personnel facilities and marketing policies and capability. a) Proper use of the product and the conditions under which use is dangerous and unadviceable. b) Document the product liability planning and procedures as well as the result of all tests and inspections. Process Quality Planning Control Subsystem: This subsystem concerns the what, where, when, who of quality control during operations. It frequently involves major expenditure for personnel, equipment, inspection and testing activity. The objectives of this subsystem are to be 1. Determine the process attribute and characteristic to be measured. 2. Determine the methods of measurement and develope detalied instructions describing the measurement process. 3. Determine, select and train the personnel required to implement the quality control procedures. 4. Measure and record operational quality interms of the number of defects and seriousness of defects and causes of defect. . Measurement And Documentation Product quality must be measured on both quantitative and qualitative basis, and the measurements must be recorder. Quantification of the qualitative aspects occurs whe defects are classified into categories such as critical major, and minor, which were describe earlier. A classification such as this one of the inputs to the organizations as greater measure of quality. Product or services that do not meet the desired quality standards generate two types of required corrective actions 1. The disposition of the defective product or service. 2. An analysis of the cause of the defeciencies. MAJOR COMPETITOR : COCA COLA: QUALITY CONTROL PROCESS  Ã…’ (COCA COLA) A Tour through Our Scientific Manufacturing Processes The Coca-Cola Company ensures the supreme quality of its beverages by employing globally accepted and validated manufacturing processes and Quality Management Systems. Let us now take you through the processes and Quality Assurance Programs followed by our world-class manufacturing facilities in India Testing Source Water For Plant Site Selection The site for our manufacturing plants are finalized only after the source water has been tested for all requirements of potable water. The analysis is always conducted by independent third party accredited laboratories. The source water is then properly protected and re-tested periodically to ensure that it conforms to international standards. The water is then drawn through sealed pipelines into the storage tanks placed in secured water treatment areas of the manufacturing plant. Water Treatment Know the Chemistry Of Purity The first step in the process of manufacturing soft drinks is to disinfect the water using globally approved chlorination procedures. This ensures that all micro-organisms including pathogens are destroyed. It also removes organic and inorganic impurities caused by oxidation of heavy metal ions. The second step is the filtration at the molecular level, which is achieved either by coagulation/flocculation or reverse osmosis. Contaminants commonly removed by this process include: Dirt, clay and any other suspended matter in the water. Microbial matter (including bacteria, yeast, moulds, virus, protozoa). Heavy metals and compounds which may cause an off-taste. The third step to stop potential contaminants is water purification using granular activated carbon filters. The granular activated carbon, with its large and porous surface area, ensures effective removal of trace levels of organic compounds (including pesticides and herbicides), colour, off-taste and odour-causing compounds using the principle of absorption. The last step is polishing filtration, which is passing water through high efficiency 5-micron filters to ensure every drop of treated water is free from any activated carbon fines and is safe for use in beverages. The Purity Of Our Sugar Is Crystal Clear Our sugar selection process is as stringent as our water purification process. The sugar, bought from high-grade authorized mills, is cleaned with a globally acclaimed carbon treatment process. A purified sugar syrup is created which is then blended with the soft drink concentrate. Carbon Dioxide Meeting International Purity Standards We procure carbon-dioxide, meeting international purity standards, from authorized suppliers. The gas then goes through stringent quality control checks before it used in the beverage. All the three primary ingredients used in beverage, the syrup, treated water and carbon-dioxide, are blended as per The Coca-Cola Companys specifications. The Automated Bottling Process We use a fully automated process to recycle the glass bottles returned from the market. These bottles are sanitized at high temperatures with specially formulated cleaning agents. They are then transported to the filler after a thorough visual inspection. After they are filled, in a high-speed automated filling machine, the bottles are capped/crowned, date coded and packed into crates/cartons. The complete manufacturing process has a well defined and structured Quality Control and Assurance Program. All the manufacturing facilities employ qualified, experienced and trained professionals for manufacturing and testing of our products. All the bottling facilities follow the Good Manufacturing Practices requirements as applicable to the food industry. All manufacturing equipment fulfil the stringent requirements of GMP and sanitary design. The entire Quality Management system of each plant is documented, managed and continually improved through aworld-wide accepted system of TCCQS (The Coca-Cola Quality System). BACK TO PEPSI : The latter units are approved on a variance basis: Many organizations establish a material review board, consisting of engineering, manufacturing quality control, marketing and a customer reprentative to review proposed rework of defective parts that are out side the standards of blueprints qualifications. Approval by all the members must be received before rework can proceed. Purchase Of Raw Material: Direct raw material for the products include the following items. i) Sugar ii) Concentrate iii) Treated water iv) Empty bottle v) Amonia and Carbon Dioxide. From above items only concentrate is provided by the franchiser. All other raw material is purchased by the company itself. Sugar Quality Testing: Purchase of sugar is a critical step in the purchase of raw material. When sugar bags are arrived at the plant that time it has to pass through a strict quality check. In fact sugar quality is very very important in the production of the beverages. . Water Treatment Tests: The company has installed four tubewells to meet the requirement of water. The extracted water is then treated for the use in the final processing. At different staged of treatment tests include: 1 Upper tap tests. 2 Sand filter and carbon purifier test. 3 Water softness test. For this purpose the company has prepared forms for the record of these tests which are signed by the shift incharge after each shift. If he observed some abnormality he stops supply from one container and provides the required water through other container. The company has two containers for the supply and storage of trated water. The closed container is then sanitized and washed back. The sanitation and washing back of containers is also done at regular basis, after ten days. Syrup Testing: After mixing water, sugar and concentrate it is treated at 900 C and then it is stored in the tanks. This is called simple syrup. This syrup is tested in the lab. This syrup goes into carbo cooler. Here Ammonia and Carbon Dioxide are mixed in the syrup. This is called finished syrup. The finished syrup is also tested in the lab. If chemist finds any deviation from the standards, the syrup is drained before any further processing. Finished Bottle Tests When the bottles are filled at filler, the chemist take sample after every half hour. If any deviation from the standard is found the whole batch is drained before going in market. A microbiological test is also taken by the chemist after a week of production. If any kind of germs growth is found the stored bottles are declared rejected. Forecasting: Planning and control for operations require an estimate of the demand for the product for the service that an organization expects to provide in the future. Numerous methods for the aart and science of forecasting have been develop and reported in the literature. The field of forecasting is full of instances at both government and individual firm levels. For short term decisions, we need forecasting methods that are relatively inexpensive to install and maintain and that can be adapted to situaations involving a large number of items to be forecast. For immidiate range plans, useful forcasts will probably be aggregated by product types. Detailed forecasts for each individual item may not be necessary. Since the relaative frequency of forecasts is lower and the number of different product types for which forecasts are made is smaller than in the case for the short term decisions, forecasting methods that require modest cost and effort could be employed. Demand Foracasting By Shamim Company:- In fact Shamim Company is a product focused companywhich highly emphasize on the production of the products. Due to the environment of the market and continuously changing demand, the management relies on qualitative methods. As the company has a seasonal business so the demand is high in the months of April, May, June, July and August. This is the peak season for the company. So for the forecast of the next demand the company sees the data of sales of the same month and the trend is observed. MATERIAL REQUIREMENT PLANNING Materials related decisions must be coordinated to make efficient use of resources. Both ther necessary material inputs and the necessary capacity must be available before transformationcan be performed to know when materials will be available before it can accurately sshedule use of capacity. It has to have some idea what capacity will be available before it can know when materials will be needed. Large companies that buy large quantities of items over extendedperiod can sometime exert enough pressure on suppliers to ontain material almost when they want them. Companies that do not make large purchases may have to fit their schedules to the dates on which material can be obtained, or purchase with sufficient lead time so that material will be available when the companies need them. Continous manufacturing operations usually involve all aspects of materials management. Regardless of the way a company may be organised , several material functions probably are performed by some organizational structure of a company and assignments of resposibilities depend on the capabilities of employee and the need of the organization as percieved by its decision maker. MATERIAL REQUIREMENT PLANNING OF SHAMIM COMPANY There are two major raw materials for products of Shamim Company. These are concentrate and sugar. Other raw material include raw water, empty bottles, Ammonia gas, Carbon Dioxide gas, caustic soda, chemicals for laboratories, and stationary items. RECOMMENDATIONS Formula the Pepsi should adopt is three way of telling customers = Tell them you are cool. = Tell them in a big way. = Keep telling this to them. Pepsi forgot that people dont drink cola they drink can, so they have to make innovations for their cans and promotional marketing. They also failed to adhere to its commitment to export 50% of its production in india, so they should concentrate on what they said. Pepsi began exporting products such as tea rice and shrimp. An agricultural research center should be establish.

Thomas Jefferson: The Man, The Myth, and The Morality :: History

Thomas Jefferson: The Man, The Myth, and The Morality Thomas Jefferson was a man of the greatest moral character who has been excoriated routinely over the last 30 years by historical revisionists and presentists. His commitment to America and his vast contributions to the framing of society as it is today are overlooked in favor of base analysis of his character that, while not flawless, is that of a morally upright person who has deeply held convictions and lives by them. Jefferson was born to a prominent family of Virginia tobacco growers. Plantation life is based largely around the work of slaves, so Jefferson was surrounded by them from the time of his birth in 1743 until the day he died. One of the harshest criticisms of Jefferson comes from the fact that, while he vehemently opposed slavery, was indeed a slave owner himself. As historian Douglas L. Wilson points out in his Atlantic Monthly article â€Å"Thomas Jefferson and the Character Issue†, the question should be reversed: â€Å"...[T]his was of asking the question... is essentially backward, and reflects the pervasive presentism of our time. Consider, for example, how different the question appears when inverted and framed in more historical terms: How did a man who was born into a slave holding society, whose family and admired friends owned slaves, who inherited a fortune that was dependent on slaves and slave labor, decide at an early age that slavery was morally wrong and forcefully declare that it ought to be abolished?† (Wilson 66). Wilson also argues that Jefferson knew that his slaves would be better off working for him than freed in a world where they would be treated with contempt and not given any real freedoms. Another way that Thomas Jefferson shows his moral character is in his most famous achievement, the drafting of the Declaration of Independence. This document is probably the most important document in the history of the United States, and one of the most important in the history of the world. Jefferson writes that â€Å"all men are created equal† and argues that every man has the right to â€Å"life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.† Jefferson’s document shows not only his strongly held beliefs in freedom, but his acceptance of and belief in the views of the Age of Reason. He believed himself to be a person who was doing what was morally right, not for the fame that would eventually accompany it. Thomas Jefferson: The Man, The Myth, and The Morality :: History Thomas Jefferson: The Man, The Myth, and The Morality Thomas Jefferson was a man of the greatest moral character who has been excoriated routinely over the last 30 years by historical revisionists and presentists. His commitment to America and his vast contributions to the framing of society as it is today are overlooked in favor of base analysis of his character that, while not flawless, is that of a morally upright person who has deeply held convictions and lives by them. Jefferson was born to a prominent family of Virginia tobacco growers. Plantation life is based largely around the work of slaves, so Jefferson was surrounded by them from the time of his birth in 1743 until the day he died. One of the harshest criticisms of Jefferson comes from the fact that, while he vehemently opposed slavery, was indeed a slave owner himself. As historian Douglas L. Wilson points out in his Atlantic Monthly article â€Å"Thomas Jefferson and the Character Issue†, the question should be reversed: â€Å"...[T]his was of asking the question... is essentially backward, and reflects the pervasive presentism of our time. Consider, for example, how different the question appears when inverted and framed in more historical terms: How did a man who was born into a slave holding society, whose family and admired friends owned slaves, who inherited a fortune that was dependent on slaves and slave labor, decide at an early age that slavery was morally wrong and forcefully declare that it ought to be abolished?† (Wilson 66). Wilson also argues that Jefferson knew that his slaves would be better off working for him than freed in a world where they would be treated with contempt and not given any real freedoms. Another way that Thomas Jefferson shows his moral character is in his most famous achievement, the drafting of the Declaration of Independence. This document is probably the most important document in the history of the United States, and one of the most important in the history of the world. Jefferson writes that â€Å"all men are created equal† and argues that every man has the right to â€Å"life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.† Jefferson’s document shows not only his strongly held beliefs in freedom, but his acceptance of and belief in the views of the Age of Reason. He believed himself to be a person who was doing what was morally right, not for the fame that would eventually accompany it.

Youth and Economic Development in the 21st Century Africa

Youth and Economic Development in the 21st Century Africa By: Ikechukwu D. Ikerionwu Dept. of Peace & Conflict Studies, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, USA. Preamble In the context of youth and economic development, leadership is a multi-layered phenomenon characterized by two main features: 1. The economic challenges facing African youth warrant responsible leadership by governments and international partners; 2. As leaders, youth can themselves play an important role in the promotion of economic development.This paper seeks to address these aspects of leadership by exploring seven main issues of economic development that are central to the well-being of youth in Africa: education and training; employment and migration; entrepreneurship; access to information and communication technology; health and HIV/AIDS; environmental and sustainable livelihoods; and participation in economic decision-making. The paper looks in particular at how governments have responded, how internationa l partners have supported efforts, and how youth themselves are taking the lead in addressing these issues.The main message is clear: while African governments are increasingly putting youth concerns at the heart of the development agenda, a lot more remains to be done. Both governments and international partners should commit to fully engage young Africans in all aspects of their programmes and initiatives that target youth and economic development. Youth have repeatedly demonstrated a willingness and an ability to contribute to the development process from the identification of issues to implementation and monitoring.However, to reap full benefits of their contributions, youth participation in programmes such as NEPAD, MDGs and PRSs needs to be strengthened. As motivated and inspired citizens, young people are agents of change with the potential for taking a leading role in tackling Africa’s development challenges for themselves, their families and the society. The youth of today are the leaders of tomorrow. Education and Skills Training for African YouthYoung Africans need access to both decent formal education and opportunities to acquire a range of vocational and life skills to actively participate in all spheres of an increasingly knowledge-intensive society, today as young citizens and tomorrow as the continent’s future leaders. Unfortunately, young people in Africa struggle to acquire an education that provides them with the right set of skills and knowledge. As a result, the transition from school-to-work is a major challenge such that many young Africans end up either unemployed or underemployed in the informal sector with little protection and prospects.Governments and international partners have made concerted efforts in recent years to improve this situation. In particular, to achieve the goal of universal primary education, many African countries have directed much effort and resources to improving primary school enrolment. The abol ishing of school fees at the primary level has been a major driving force to achieve this goal. In Malawi, for example, free primary school education has considerably increased the youth literacy level. Even while enrolments have been increasing, the quality of education in many African countries appears to be on the decline.Inadequate infrastructure and training facilities, poor and inappropriate curricula, and lack of well-trained and motivated teachers are among the main reasons explaining this decline. The Nigeria government is still having issues with the labour unions over the implementation of the N18,000 ($115. 38) minimum wage. Though access to primary education is a necessary first step and a fulfilment of a human right, it is also clear that it does not provide needed skills for a young African to compete in an increasingly competitive labour market.Moreover, at the country level, a critical mass of secondary and higher education graduates are required in order to acceler ate economic development. In most African countries, secondary schools are limited in capacity, which is largely due to inadequate budgetary resources for this sector. Consequently, the chances of young people proceeding to secondary school, not to mention tertiary institutions, are significantly hampered. To deal with this predicament, African governments and international partners must take a more holistic approach to education, broadening their focus from just primary education.In this context, African girls and young women need special attention. Overall, in most of Africa, gender disparities continue to impede young girls’ acquisition of a decent education and employable skills. This keeps young African girls away from their rightful place as agents of development and leaders of tomorrow. Fortunately, the gender situation has greatly improved in recent years in some African countries. A number of them, such as Botswana, Lesotho, Mauritius, Namibia, Rwanda, Swaziland, Nig eria, Zimbabwe etc, are in fact on track to achieve the goal of eliminating gender disparities in primary education. 1] Other countries have turned to a range of measures to reduce the gender disparity in access to education – one illustration is the provision of free uniforms and books to girls in Kenya. There are also considerable regional disparities within countries in terms of education and educational attainments. In this regard, the uneven distribution of educational infrastructure in most African countries reflects the weak commitment of governments in addressing this issue. Most secondary schools and tertiary institutions in Africa are located in the cities, with rural pupils struggling for access.This situation contributes to the persistent urban-bias that has so much distorted Africa’s development. The difficulties of the school-to-work transition would be reduced if young people end up with skills that are demanded by employers. One approach is to design cu rricula to suit the changing needs of the labour market, or alternatively, to combine formal education with workbased training as has been adopted in Egypt. Different forms of training are also needed to address the limited skills of young Africans once they have left formal education.In this context, African governments can provide public funded training or financial support for private provision of such facilities, which could focus on either general training or more specific vocational skills. Apprenticeships have been utilized in a number of African countries as a measure to address skills and employability of out-of-school youth for example the National Open Apprenticeship Scheme in Nigeria. In 1987, the Government of River State in Nigeria launched an innovative programme dubbed the National Open Apprenticeship Scheme (NOAS) as an attempt to link education and training with the workplace.The scheme provides vocational education and training to unemployed youth. It utilizes fac ilities such as workshops and technical instructors from private industries, government institutions, and by way of subcontracting arrangements, way-side craftsmen and tradesmen in the informal sector. Under this scheme, unemployed youth and school leavers are trained for a period of 6 to 36 months under reputable master craftsmen. They are also taught management, business and administrative skills.The scheme has succeeded in training over 600,000 unemployed youth in over 80 different trades out of which about two-thirds started their own micro-enterprise. A mobile training scheme dubbed School-On-Wheels programme introduced in 1990 has provided vocational training to over 21,000 school leavers and other unskilled persons in rural areas. The programme is of a three-month duration, after which graduates are absorbed into the NOAS. Another related scheme is the Waste-to-Wealth Scheme under which youth are trained in the techniques of converting waste material into useful objects.At le ast 8,000 people have been trained under this scheme. [2] Besides the provision of training, the private and non-profit sectors also have a role in providing formal education at all levels. For example, religious bodies are actively involved in the educational sector in Africa, even at the tertiary level. Since governments are constrained by limited financial resources, African leaders need to explore the use of pubic-private partnerships (PPPs) to overcome shortfalls in the education sector.PPPs can also enhance the linkages (forward and backward) between the formal education sector and the private sector. This can in turn ensure that curricula are demand-driven, helping to improve the skills match between school leavers and requirements of employers. Trained and motivated young people can themselves play a substantial role through peer education initiatives. Peers can reach out either in an organized manner or informally to other youth, imparting information and knowledge on issue s such as health and well-being.Peer education can happen in small groups or through individual contact, and can take place in a variety of settings such as in schools and universities, clubs, churches, workplaces, on the street or in a shelter. In Africa, peer education has been used successfully for raising HIV/AIDS awareness and developing life-skills amongst vulnerable youth. Initiatives of development partners. Development partners have also played a major role in pushing the education and skills agenda forward in Africa and in promoting initiatives to increase education access and attainments throughout the continent.One innovative project developed by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) together with the Canadian Bureau for International Education aims at providing education and training to participants in a number of African countries. Known as the CIDA Youth Education and Training Awards – Africa, the project focuses on young people already involved in non-governmental organizations and community groups. The education and training provided to winners of the awards include short courses and academic programmes.Having these programmes in the country also helps stem brain drain. Youth Employment and the Challenges of Migration Having a job provides one not only with a source of income but also a basis for dignity and self-respect. To be leaders in the context of their families and in the broader community, young Africans need to secure a decent job. However, young people have a hard time in African job markets; with inadequate education and skills and few opportunities, most young Africans face a future of low-wage employment, unemployment and underemployment.An increasing youth population adds to the pool of job seekers every year, worsening the situation. In Nigeria, over 300,000 youth participate in the National Youth Service Corps scheme annually, but sadly, only about 5% secure decent jobs. The rest are either unemployed or u nderemployed. In Northern Nigeria and elsewhere in Africa, young women also face particular barriers in the labour market, much of which is attributable to cultural attitudes towards them.The expansion of employment opportunities is far below the growth in the youth population because of a lack of appropriate technologies and investment. For example, Africa’s continued dependence on rain-fed agriculture causes much underemployment among rural youth for most part of the year. With little access to land, these youth lack educational, economic and cultural opportunities. As a result, young people consciously decide to move to the towns in the hope of greater chances for employment, as well as a more exciting life, causing massive urban drift.Sadly, once in the big city, African youth lose hope of finding a decent job and are compelled to cross dangerous paths and waters to better pastures, with all too tragic consequences. It is no longer news that less than one-third of the tho usands of young Africans who attempt to reach Europe through the Sahara desert and other illegal channels make it to their dream destinations. Another problem is the rising incidence of youth poverty, crime, prostitution and drugs among youth, as well as the involvement in armed conflict – direct consequence of the lack of decent jobs.In Nigeria one we have the Boko Haram sect, the Niger Delta militia etc. This is of particular concern, not only due to its profound impact on the lives of young people but for society as a whole. Tackling The Challenges Of Youth Employment For many decades, governments and international partners focused on macroeconomic stability and structural adjustment as a means to promote economic growth and thereby create jobs. The underlying faith in this approach was that these measures alone would lead to job creation and poverty reduction, for youth and adults alike.There is now a growing consensus among governments and development partners that speci fic policy measures are required to tackle the main barriers to employment generation for Africa’s youth. One relatively effective measure is the public works programme, which has been implemented in a number of African countries with some success in creating jobs for unskilled youth. Public Works Programmes in Senegal With the assistance of the World Bank and the African Development Bank, the Senegalese government set up in 1989 a US$33 million public works programme that targeted the growing number of unemployed youth.The main objectives of the programme, which was administered by the Agence pour l’Execution de Travaux d’Interet Public contre le Sous-emploi (AGETIP), were to provide short-term employment to these young people through labour-intensive public works projects such as construction, rehabilitation and maintenance of public services, and provision of essential services. The work was subcontracted out to small and medium-scale enterprises. During the first phase of the programme, around 80,000 jobs were created for young people in 416 projects in small-scale enterprises.Overall, AGETIP has implemented 3,226 projects resulting in the creation of 350,000 temporary jobs annually. More importantly, the projects also led to the establishment of 6,000 permanent jobs, an outcome that is not usually associated with a public works programme. [3] The International Labour Organization (ILO) is involved in a number of projects that target job creation for young people as part of their Employment Intensive Investment Programme (EIPP). EIPPs are public works-type projects in the area of infrastructure, and have been implemented in over 20 African countries.Under the umbrella of this initiative and with assistance from donors, a number of projects in labour-based road construction and maintenance have been supported on the continent. Facing a dire situation in the labour market, many young people stop actively searching for a job. A South Afri can survey in 2000 revealed, for example, that 39 per cent of unemployed youth had stopped searching for employment. [4] Job-search assistance can be provided or funded by the government to help encourage African youth to re-engage with the labour market through activities like writing job applications and curriculum vitae, and preparing for interviews.A number of global initiatives have been set up to accelerate efforts in tackling youth unemployment and underemployment. For example, the United Nations, along with the ILO and World Bank, established the Youth Employment Network (YEN) in 2001 to provide support to the global commitment of â€Å"developing and implementing strategies that give young people everywhere a real chance to find decent and productive work† as embedded in the United Nations Millennium Declaration of 2000.National and regional programmes aside, young people continually demonstrate their own ability to cope with the situation they face in the labour mar ket. Promoting The Benefits Of Migration While Mitigating The Costs While migrating to an urban area is a rational act for a young person in search of a job and a better life, too often, the end result is poverty and exploitation. To rectify this, governments must look at job creation in rural areas, though these initiatives need to be both intensified and expanded.At the same time, very little effort has been made in Africa to reduce emigration or to promote the return of emigrants. It is unreasonable for so many Africans living outside Africa (who are making giant strides) to return home. In response to this situation, the African Union has established a â€Å"Strategic Framework for a Policy on Migration† with the goal of addressing the causes of internal and international migration and its challenges.The ILO together with the European Commission has also set up a project on â€Å"Managing Labour Migration for Development and Integration in the Maghreb, West Africa and Ea st Africa†. This project has increased awareness of stakeholders on different aspects of labour migration, promoted understanding of its causes and consequences, and collected data and information, which are critically needed to develop comprehensive policy frameworks and labour migration management measures.Youth and Entrepreneurship Given the right combination of motivation, ideas and opportunities, youth are more than able to establish productive and creative businesses. Engaging in entrepreneurship shifts young people from being â€Å"job seekers† to â€Å"job creators,† and also from social dependence to selfsufficiency. Many self-employed youth also contribute to the upkeep of their family, sometimes in a leading role in the absence of parents.Despite these potential benefits entrepreneurship, the majority of youth continue to look up to the state for employment rather than creating their own jobs and employing others. This failure of young people to engage in entrepreneurship has also been attributed to a range of factors: sociocultural attitudes towards youth entrepreneurship, lack of entrepreneurial training in the school curriculum, incomplete market information, absence of business support and physical infrastructure, regulatory framework conditions, and in particular, poor access to finance.The youth strongly recognized their involvement in small business development as an important vehicle for national development but lack of financial resources has always been a major constraint for youth entrepreneurship and business development. Owing to the lack of collateral and business experience, young people are considered a very high risk by lenders. The limited number of micro-finance institutions that target young people in business continues to constraint the development of youth entrepreneurship. On the gender front, very few young women in Africa engage in establishing and running their own enterprises.For instance, in Zambia onl y around 5 per cent of females aged 15-19 are running enterprises as proprietors compared to 15 per cent among their male counterparts. While 25 per cent of female youth aged 20-24 are engaged in running enterprises in Zambia, as much as 40 per cent of male youth are self-employed. The Effect of Combination of Training And Funds Providing capital alone to young potential entrepreneurs is only part of the solution. Studies have shown that what is more effective is the provision of capital together with training in managerial and entrepreneurial skills.In South Africa, for example, the Umsobomvu Youth Fund (UYF), a government-created development finance agency for skills development and employment creation for youth, has developed a number of initiatives such as micro loans for young entrepreneurs, the creation of a venture-capital fund underwritten by a mainstream bank with the UYF providing guarantees, and the development of a voucher programme to access business development service s. Private institutions, especially non-profit organizations, also play an important role in training and funding young entrepreneurs.One example of this is TechnoServe’s business plan competition: ‘Believe, Begin, Become’, which is supported by the Google Foundation, and now active in Ghana and Swaziland. Since 2002, TechnoServe’s competitions have helped launch or expand 165 small and medium-scale enterprises that have generated US$8. 2 million in additional revenues and created more than 1,000 new jobs. In the international policy context, the Youth Employment Network (YEN) and the Commonwealth Youth Credit Initiative (CYCI), for instance, help promote youth entrepreneurship in a number of African countries.Partnerships between such international institutions and the private sector have seen the creation and development of young entrepreneurs Young Africans can also benefit from the experiences of established business leaders. Through mentoring schemes, internships and training opportunities, young people can gain an insight into setting up and running a business, and importantly, how to avoid the potential pitfalls in the real world of business.Governments need to encourage the private sector to take on this role. As with other areas of economic development addressed so far, one key weakness in the formulation of youth entrepreneurship initiatives is the inadequate involvement of youth in their design and implementation, which will be discussed later. Youth and ICT – A Powerful Combination for Promoting Leadership The information and communication technology (ICT) revolution has radically changed the world we live in.Young people in particular have demonstrated an aptitude in developing, adopting and disseminating such technologies, and their leadership role in this sphere is evident throughout both the industrialized and developing world. In fact, it is common practice for adults to learn ICT skills from youth. ICT Is Cro ss-Cutting ICT adoption can be used both as a tool to promote youth as leaders in the ICT sector and to foster broader youth leadership. With an impact that is cross-cutting, ICT can, therefore, contribute to youth participation in a wide range of economic, social and political activities.For example, new technologies can be used for improving access to and quality of education for African youth. With the necessary infrastructure, technologies like online learning can bring a high standard of education to remote, rural communities. Moreover, in a global economy characterized by skill-intensity, young Africans increasingly require a range of ICT skills in order to get a decent job. Equipping youth with such skills can also have a catalytic effect on innovation and entrepreneurship, contributing to economic development.ICT entrepreneurship is evident on the streets of all African cities in vending kiosks, where young people provide such services as mobile phone calls, sale of recharge cards and repairs. The number of tele-centres in countries like Senegal and the proliferation of Internet cafes across the continent have also been a source of employment opportunities for youth. In Nigeria, we have computer village in Lagos, GSM village in Abuja etc, engaging thousands of youths in different spheres of ICT, thereby providing job opportunities for them.Besides these small, informal businesses, ICT-related youth enterprise opportunities include: producing/reselling hardware, software and telecommunications products; data entry services; ICT-based business services; software customisation; distance learning; computer training; consultancy; content provision; communication (e-mail/Internet/mobile); data processing (small business information systems) and ICT-based manufacturing systems. African Youth also employ ICT to develop social enterprises.For instance, the Mobile for Good (M4G) programme in Kenya. M4G is a social franchise project designed to use mobile technol ogy to improve the lives of people in Kenya, the majority being young people. It aims to send essential health, employment and community content via SMS on mobile phones in order to inform and empower disadvantaged individuals. The pilot project, which started in September 2003 in Kibera, an informal settlement situated on the outskirts of Nairobi, has successfully evolved into a self-sustainable Kenyan owned and managed venture.The project seeks to empower marginalized individuals by offering a unique SMS-based information service to disadvantaged communities. The services that have been developed include: Kazi560, a job information service for the casual jobs sector, Health Tips, which provides daily tips to subscribers about Breast Cancer, HIV/AIDS, and Diabetes, and a Community News service, which provides free, locally sourced news to those living in informal settlements in Kenya via SMS.The Community News service reaches over 5,000 people in Kibera. The information is collecte d by a group of 11 Youth Mobilizers who are all residents in the community. Information can vary from events, to health clinics, to jobs on offer. All the information is designed to promote economic and social development in communities and to provide a means of accessing information otherwise costly or unavailable. The success of M4G has been staggering.The project has fulfilled its subscriber targets considerably ahead of schedule, with the number of subscribers now exceeding 30,000. Hundreds of people have found employment through the jobs service, Kazi560. [5] ICT also facilitates youth participation in civic discussions, providing young people with a voice on a range of topics. Electronic fora involving African youth have been successfully undertaken by international agencies like the United Nations.Such initiatives not only assist young people to exchange and develop ideas, but also help inform policy makers and practitioners. The success of the struggle for leadership change in Egypt and other places by the youth can be attributed to one of the effects of ICT. ICT Adoption In Africa Remains Insufficient Despite its advantages, ICT adoption in much of Africa remains low. For instance, there are only 0. 75 computer users per 100 inhabitants – this is to say that only a small proportion of young Africans have access to the Internet.Moreover, due to differences in income and access to infrastructure, the digital-divide on the continent is demarcated not only by national boundaries but also within countries. Fortunately, decreasing prices and recent advances, particularly in mobile telephony, have helped expand access to ICT on the continent, especially amongst the youth. Nonetheless, governments and partners have a lot more to do to eliminate disparities in ICT adoption. Governments should focus on: a pro-poor ICT policy; promotion of ICT investments in rural areas and public-private partnerships; financial and trategic support of ICT youth-led enter prises; career counseling for young people on ICT opportunities and different areas of specialization; promotion of affordable ICT rural infrastructure and local content; development of multipurpose community tele-centres in rural areas; and dissemination of best practices. One way of building capabilities and networks between public institutions (governments and universities) and the private sector is the support of technology parks and business incubators for the ICT sector, in particular to nurture youth-led ICT enterprises.Egypt, Ghana, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa and Tunisia are pioneers in promoting ICT-youth led enterprises through such initiatives. International partners are also playing an important part in the promotion of information and communication technologies for development, known as ICT4D. For instance, the African Youth and Communication Technologies for Development (ICT4D) Network – AYIN- (www. ayinetwork. org) was established in 2005 as a pan- African platform for youth input into the African information society agenda.It is a vision of a â€Å"networked generation of young Africans empowering themselves and contributing to the continent’s active participation in the Information Society†. The network has commenced the implementation of its Action Plan with the development of strategies to promote youth involvement in policy development on the continent. Improving Health and Fighting HIV/AIDS Through Youth Leadership The ability of African youth to contribute to economic development and become leaders in all walks of life critically depends on their health status.In Africa today, young people are, however, vulnerable to debilitating illnesses and health problems such as malaria, tuberculosis, water-borne diseases, maternal complications, and above all, HIV/AIDS. Consequences of HIV/AIDS for Development The HIV/AIDS pandemic, especially in Southern Africa, poses one of the greatest economic, social and politic al challenges of our time. AIDS reduces the earning capacity of affected individuals and increases their medical expenses, pushing families and households further into poverty, creating a icious cycle of material deprivation and health problems. The disease leaves behind a generation of orphans, many of whom are left to be brought up by other relatives or are forced to fend for themselves. Besides the tragic consequences of the pandemic for individuals and their families, HIV/AIDS remains a major burden for affected countries; it severely hampers efforts of governments to improve the health status of the countries and achieve sustainable economic development, in particular by diverting scarce resources from other development priorities.HIV/AIDS also reduces labour supply and productivity levels, which in turn have a negative impact on economic growth. This is nowhere more evident than in the education sector, where the disease is cutting back the numbers of trained teachers and dimi nishing aspirations for achieving the Millennium Development Goal II of universal primary education by 2015. Young African Women Are The Most Vulnerable To HIV/AIDS Young Africans are more vulnerable to HIV infection than adults with young women being at the highest risk of getting the virus.In terms of the vulnerability of young women, the figures are quite alarming – young women (aged 15-24) in sub-Saharan Africa are two and half times more likely to be infected than males in the same age group. In some areas, up to six times more women than men are affected in the 15-24 age group. [6] The vulnerability of young Africans to HIV infection stems from both physical and social aspects of their lives. Physical vulnerability results from the damaging effects of malnutrition and ailments such as bilharzia.A weakened immune system, particularly for adolescence during growth spurts, significantly increases their susceptibility to becoming infected. HIV prevalence can also be attribu ted to a range of socio-economic factors such as: poverty, inequality, and social exclusion; low levels of education and lack of information; poor access to health services; and societal attitudes. Young women are especially vulnerable because of migration, poor living conditions in informal settlements, isolation and proneness to sexual exploitation and abuse.The Need For Targeted Interventions The conventional approach to tackling HIV/AIDS focuses on changing people’s behaviour in order to reduce HIV infection rates. Young people have been targeted by such campaigns via the media, youth centres and peer education. The most well known initiative using this paradigm is the ABC campaign (Abstain, Be faithful and use a Condom). However, ABC initiatives fail to address the physical and social environment that creates the conditions for high infection rates.The United Nations Secretary-General’s report on young women in Southern Africa recognized this limitation and called for broader measures that also aim at creating safe places for young women, amongst other actions. [7] Youth As Key Partners African youth and their organizations have been already at the forefront of tackling HIV/AIDS in terms of raising awareness and developing life skills, and also supporting others such as orphans. In this respect, youth centres and peer education have proven to be one of the most effective initiatives undertaken by African youth.For example, the Anti-Aids Youth Clubs in Ethiopia, with UNICEF support, youth clubs have sprung up in the country to fight stigma, discrimination and ignorance about HIV/AIDS. There are now more than 230 such clubs alone in Ethiopia’s Somali region, where the stigma of the disease and societal attitudes make it particularly challenging to get the message out. In this region, the use of condoms is estimated to be as low as 0. 5 per cent, and female genital mutilation, a major factor behind HIV transmission, is almost universal a mongst women.Youth clubs are more successful than government interventions because young people can more effectively influence their peers by using appropriate media to target them. A comment by one member of a club about music written for this purpose captures this point: â€Å"Young people don’t stop in the street to read a banner they don’t understand. But they listen to the music and the lyrics†. The songs written address such themes as prevention, stigma and friendship.Other clubs use poetry and drama to get the messages across to other youth. Besides promoting HIV/AIDS awareness, these clubs also give young people a sense of responsibility and pride in regions where jobs are few and far between. [8] One limitation of peer education in the area of HIV prevention is that it often fails to reach young women, who are the most vulnerable. To rectify this situation, governments, partners and youth organizations need to consider targeted measures that focus on yo ung vulnerable women.Moreover, attention must also be given to addressing the causes of their vulnerability so that some of the contributing factors are tackled, including the danger of sexual exploitation and abuse. While there is a compelling need to focus on HIV/AIDS in many African countries, there must also be a concerted effort to improve the overall health situation of young Africans including improving access to sanitation and drinking water, increasing nutritional levels, and expanding preventive health programmes.Broadening the focus of health services can help reduce stigmatisation and the subsequent reluctance of youth to use these services. In all initiatives, full participation of young people in the development and promotion of health-related policies and programmes must be encouraged to enable them to become agents of change in their communities. Above all, continued international cooperation and a collective global effort are necessary for the containment of the HIV /AIDS pandemic and other health challenges affecting young people in Africa.The Role of Youth in Protecting the Environment and Promoting Sustainable Livelihoods As heirs to the environmental risks and hazards the world is producing today, ‘it is imperative that the youth take on a leading role in protecting the environment and promoting sustainable livelihoods. [9] Africa faces a number of environmental risks and hazards that disproportionately affect young people, not only because they result in deteriorating physical conditions for both rural and urban dwellers. Erosion, pollution in all its forms, reduced biodiversity, over-exploitation f natural resources such as water and forests, and desertification, among many others, also severely compromise economic development and prosperity. Already, forest size in Africa has been drastically reduced over the last century, due to human activity, contributing to desertification and water scarcity. In many countries on the continent, access to clean drinking water may soon become a reason for conflict. In addition, the rate of urbanization in Africa poses an environmental challenge in waste management, access to water and sanitation facilities.With only an estimated one-third of the total municipal waste on the continent formally disposed of, the amount of waste generated in African cities far exceeds the capacity of most municipalities. Already exposed to economic hardship, the youth need to take responsibility for the state of the environment by becoming full participants in society. But the question remains: Are young people sufficiently engaged? The voice of youth is an invaluable asset to environmental conservation and management.Some governments and non-governmental organizations in Africa are committed to advancing the role and active involvement of youth in the protection of the environment and the promotion of sustainable development. Initiatives include youth participation in advisory bodies such as y outh councils within the context of Chapter 25 of Agenda 21, adopted at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) and the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg in 2002.The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) also recognizes the importance of a healthy and productive environment and the role that the young people of Africa can play within this agenda. But commitment does not always mean action. For example, even though many African countries are signatories to various UN conventions, many have yet to be implemented. And, even in cases where conventions have been adopted and implemented, youth involvement has been at a minimum. Youth Taking Leadership The best prospect for the environment in Africa is an empowered youth.The involvement of youth in environment and development decision-making at the local, national and regional levels is critical to the implementation of sustainable development policies. M any youth organizations are already taking a leading role in the area of environmental protection. For example, in January 1993, Environment JEUnesse (ENJEU, or Environment- Youth), Quebec's youth environmentalist network, took the initiative to create a Francophone network of youth organizations for environment and development.The essential aspect of ENJEU's action plan is to mobilize and encourage youth to come together regionally in each major pocket of the Francophone world, including Africa. Some youth organizations in Africa such as Tensing, Internationally Committed Youth (ICY), YMCA/YWCA for Africa, Organization for International Resource Management, and Friends of the Earth clubs, have carried out education campaigns, tree planting and waste management exercises in their respective communities, especially during the commemoration of the World Environment Day.Other best practices of youth involvement include â€Å"For the Love of Water† in Botswana, â€Å"Uniting You th across Northern Africa†, â€Å"Students on the Move† in Uganda, ‘Painting Ghana Green† and â€Å"Ecological Youth of Angola† among others. To improve awareness across the board, governments must integrate environmental issues into school curricula and training programmes for teachers. Youth in schools, communities and organizations must be educated on sustainable ways of living such as recycling and the sustainable use of environmental-friendly technologies.An example is the efforts of the Environmental Education Association of Southern Africa and Friends of the Earth clubs in the region. In Angola, Juventude Ecologica Angolana (JEA) (The Ecological Youth of Angola) is a non-profit environmental NGO, which was established in 1991 with the primary purpose of promoting environmental conservation and sustainable development through the involvement and participation of young people in environmental education and active learning processes and activities . JEA now has over 5,000 conservation volunteers and environmental educators based in eight of Angola’s provinces.These young volunteers address different environmental issues facing the country: sanitation, biodiversity loss, soil erosion, desertification, and urban solid waste. The organization has developed programmes and projects such as the Communication, Education and Public Awareness (CEPA) initiative, capacity building, database management, clean-up and waste recycling campaigns, research and environmental assessment, and tree planting. In June 2002, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) recognized the contribution of this organization by awarding it the UNEP Global 500 Youth Environmental Award. 10] Environmental And Sustainable Livelihoods Is Cross-Cutting Promoting environmental and sustainable livelihoods has a number of indirect, but nonetheless important benefits for countries in Africa. For example, there is a double dividend from developing sustainab le technologies in the area of renewable energies. On the one hand, these technologies reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, while at the same time they can be generators of employment for vulnerable youth. Creating Jobs Under the SunThe Kibera Community Youth Project (KCYP) produces solar panels in a small workshop in the middle of Kibera, Kenya’s largest informal settlement. Using skills and equipment passed on to them by a British volunteer, young people in this project are involved in all aspects of production. The solar panels are sold to power radios and charge mobile phones and rechargeable batteries, services that are in high demand in an area where electricity supply is erratic at best. [11] Many of the young people involved in KCYP have never had a job before and often live in jobless households.This project provides them with an opportunity to earn an income, while the simple technology helps improve people’s lives in a sustainable way. To further enhance such synergies, governments in collaboration with youth organizations should initiate programmes that promote the participation of African youth in reforestation, combating desertification, waste management, recycling and other environmental practices. Youth participation in such programmes would provide training and encourage awareness and action, while also generating potential income-generating activities and employment opportunities.Youth Participation in Economic Decision-Making Youth in Africa face specific challenges in the areas of education, employment, migration, entrepreneurship, ICT, health and environmental and sustainable livelihoods. To address these issues, African governments must prioritize youth in policy-making, or forego the chance of meeting their development goals. Until recently, policymakers rarely included youth in the decision-making process or even consulted with them on their concerns. Cultural attitudes have been a major stumbling block to establishing inter-generational dialogue, not just in Africa but also globally.Traditionally, wisdom was seen as an increasing function of age, and subsequently, adult leaders and policymakers took it upon themselves to make decisions on behalf of youth. But such policymaking largely resulted in inappropriate policies that failed to address the requisite needs and aspirations of youth. Having incidentally proven their ability to take leadership in the area of economic development, acting as agents of change, this traditional attitude requires urgent modification. Justifying youth participation It would appear to the onlooker that the case for including youth in policymaking is compelling.Nonetheless, it has been necessary to argue why economic decision-making should be both inclusive and youth-focused. For example, the UNFPA’s report â€Å"The Case for Investing in Young People as Part of a National Poverty Reduction Strategy† offers a number of arguments: 1. Equitable distributio n of resources – Young people make up a large proportion of the population and the poor; 2. Achieving the MDGs – Five goals explicitly refer to young people in terms of educational attainment, gender balance in education, improved maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS and other diseases, and developing decent employment opportunities for young people; 3.Economic benefits – By investing in education and health, governments can increase productivity and economic growth; 4. Youth poverty requires special attention – Young people experience particular vulnerabilities that make them prone to suffering from poverty, unemployment, etc; 5. Long-term benefits – Through investing in young people, it is possible to embark on the demographic transition by lowering population growth; and by improving the situation of youth, countries can decrease the chance that they will later become involved in criminal activity and civil conflict.Youth participation in major d evelopment strategies – PRSPs, MDGs and NEPAD New initiatives now dominate the development agenda on the continent, including Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), the quest to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD). These approaches are a departure from the past with a shift to a focus on pro-poor policies, participatory and consultative processes, and ownership by countries. Though youth often figure prominently on paper, their involvement in any of these initiatives has usually been limited.For instance, in a review of 31 completed PRSPs, over half mention that youth were consulted as a group as part of the PRSP process. However, the initiatives targeting youth have been piecemeal and inadequate in their scale and impact. [12] It is encouraging that the more recent PRSPs are more likely to have a major youth focus. In terms of youth employment, another analysis of PRSPs found that out of 21 Afri can PRSPs, only 11 had at least one core section analyzing the issue. [13]Clearly, there is a lot more governments could do to improve youth participation in the PRS process, particularly as part of the next generation of strategies. African governments should complement efforts of both the UN and youth organizations to achieve these goals. A good example of this is the TPT scheme below. Tackling Poverty Together (TPT) aims to enhance the role of African youth in poverty reduction strategies. The project was established by the United Nations Department of Social and Economic Affairs’ Programme on Youth together with the National Council of Swedish Youth Organizations (LSU).Other UN agencies and the Economic Commission for Africa provided technical support to the project. The TPT project brought together teams of youth from six African countries, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia, along with a youth team from Sweden. Through workshops and ongoing support, thes e teams developed strategies and action plans consisting of concrete steps to improve the inclusion of youth in poverty reduction efforts in their respective countries. [14]Youth have also been actively involved in the MDG agenda as reflected by their participation and articulation of ideas at various international fora including the World Youth Summits. For instance, in 2005 a group of international youth leaders representing a range of non-governmental organizations, including representatives from Africa, prepared a report, â€Å"Youth and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): Challenges and Opportunities for Implementation†. [15] This report outlines how young people can be included and empowered as part of strategies for achieving the MDGs.The aim is that the report can be used as a lobby tool and guide for programmatic action, but ultimately, it is also a call to all member States, UN specialized agencies, and civil society to create mechanisms for youth to participat e in the implementation of the MDGs and take advantage of the work and activities youth are already leading. In 2005, the NEPAD Youth Summit was organized to launch a broad social movement to promote youth participation in the implementation and monitoring of NEPAD at the country level.The establishment of NEPAD e-Africa Youth Programme is another platform that aims to promote youth involvement in the implementation of NEPAD. This initiative seeks to build a cadre of young people who will raise awareness on the issues of the information society and serve as active participants in building an inclusive information society in their countries. Conclusion Young people in Africa have enormous potential that could be harnessed for promoting economic development on the continent.African governments and international partners, therefore, need to focus policy initiatives and resources on improving the leadership role of African youth. The success of such interventions depends on the particip ation of young people in all aspects of the public policy process from the crafting of economic policies to their implementation, and subsequently, monitoring and evaluation. In particular, youth need to be part of the current development agenda in terms of poverty-reduction strategies, meeting the MDGs, and implementing the objectives of NEPAD.Young people need to have opportunities to carry out their activities. At the same time, governments and international partners can provide technical and financial support to youth in order for them to fulfil their potential as agents of change. To achieve this goal, practical and achievable measures need to be put in place by both governments and international partners, including: – Strengthening the capacity of youth clubs, associations and organizations at community and national levels; – Promoting interaction between economic policy makers, international partners and youth to learn about their problems and experiences; Insti tuting regular consultations with youth organizations to get their inputs into the development process; and – Promoting youth leadership at local, national, subregional and global levels through regular interface with community and national authorities. References 1. Agenda 21, adopted at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) and the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg in 2002. 2. du Toit, R. (2003) â€Å"Unemployed youth in South Africa: the distressed generation? Paper presented at the Minnesota International Counselling Institute, 27 July – 1 August 2003. 3. Kanyenze G. , Mhone G. , and T. Sparreboom (2000) â€Å"Strategies to Combat Youth Unemployment and Marginalisation in Anglophone Africa,† ILO/SAMAT Discussion Paper, No. 14. 4. Mabala, R. (2006) â€Å"From HIV prevention to HIV protection: addressing the vulnerability of girls and young women in urban areas,† Environment and Urba nization, Vol. 18(2). 5. Sarr, M. (2000) â€Å"Youth employment in Africa: the Senegalese experience,† Background Paper No. , UNO-ILO-World Bank Meeting on Youth Employment, New York, 25th August 2000. 6. United Nations (2004) Report of the United Nations Secretary-General’s Task Force on Women, Girls and HIV/AIDS in Southern Africa: Facing the Future Together, United Nations, New York. 7. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) (2002) â€Å"Youth and Employment in Africa†, Paper prepared for and presented at the Youth Employment Summit, Alexandria, Egypt, September. 8. UNECA (2005a) the Millennium Development Goals in Africa: Progress and Challenges, UNECA, Addis Ababa. 9.UNECA (2005b) The Economic Report on Africa 2005 – Meeting the Challenge of Unemployment and Poverty in Africa, UNECA, Addis Ababa. 10. United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) (2005) Africa Environment Outlook for Youth: Our Region – Our Life, UNEP, Nairobi. 1 1. United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA) (2005) The Case of Investing in Young People as part of Poverty Reduction Strategy, UNFPA, New York. 12. uk. oneworld. net/section/mobile 13. World Health Organization (WHO)-AFRO (2003) HIV/AIDS Epidemiological Surveillance Update for the WHO African Region 2002, WHO, Regional Office for Africa, Harare. 5. www. un. org/esa/socdev/unyin/TPT 16. www. un. org/esa/socdev/unyin/mdgs. htm 17. www. kcyp. kabissa. org ———————– [1] UNECA (2005a) the Millennium Development Goals in Africa: Progress and Challenges, UNECA, Addis Ababa. [2] UNECA (2002), â€Å"Youth and Employment in Africa† A Paper prepared for and presented at the Youth and Employment Summit, Alexandria, Egypt, September 2002. [3] Sarr M. , â€Å"Youth employment in Africa: the Senegalese experience†, Background Paper No. 3, UNO-ILO-World Bank Meeting on Youth Employment, New York, 25th August, 2000. 4 ] Kanyenze et al. â€Å"Strategies to Combat Youth Unemployment and Marginalization in Anglophone Africa,† ILO/SAMAT Discussion Paper, No. 14, 2000. du Toit, R. â€Å"unemployed Youth in South Africa: the distressed generation? † Paper presented at the Minnesota International Counseling Institute, 27 July-1 August 2003. [5] uk. oneworld. net/section/mobile [6] Mabala, R. (2006) â€Å"From HIV prevention to HIV protection: addressing the vulnerability of girls and young women in urban areas,† Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 8(2). [7] United Nations (2004) Report of the United Nations Secretary-General’s Task Force on Women, Girls and HIV/AIDS in Southern Africa: Facing the Future Together, United Nations, New York. [8] World Health Organization (WHO)-AFRO (2003) HIV/AIDS Epidemiological Surveillance Update for the WHO African Region 2002, WHO, Regional Office for Africa, Harare [9] Agenda 21, Chapter 25 United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) (200 5) Africa Environment Outlook for Youth: Our Region – Our Life, UNEP, Nairobi. 10] United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) (2005) Africa Environment Outlook for Youth: Our Region – Our Life, UNEP, Nairobi. [11] www. kcyp. kabissa. org [12] United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA) (2005) The Case of Investing in Young People as part of Poverty Reduction Strategy, UNFPA, New York. [13] UNECA (2005b) UNECA (2005b) The Economic Report on Africa 2005 – Meeting the Challenge of Unemployment and Poverty in Africa, UNECA, Addis Ababa [14] www. un. org/esa/socdev/unyin/TPT [15] www. un. org/esa/socdev/unyin/mdgs. htm

Nature and Nature in Cognitive Development Essay

Why are both nature and nurture important in perceptual development? How do both help a baby’s brain and sensory organs to develop?   The question of whether nature or nurture is more important in terms of perceptual development has bee long debated. In general, there are two theories that explain how humans develop these perceptions. The Nativists claim that our brains are built or hardwired to recognize certain stimuli by both design and construction. In contrast, an Empiricist would say that we learn through experience how to perceive things. There was an experiment done by Nativist researchers that sought to determine how very young mammals are able to perceive. The data concluded that early infants were able to perceive quite a lot before they really had a chance to learn anything. Gibson and Walk’s the â€Å"visual cliff† experiment was one such experiment, in this test both young animals and 6 month old human infants were taken to a side of a visual cliff, the test subjects would avoid the clearly deep drop. This indicated that children can perceive visual depth and that visual depth dominates even touch information. Additionally, studies have been done that show babies can recognize faces and that they often prefer the visual stimulation of carton faces as opposed to the same features arranged at random. In other tests it was shown that babies can also recognize whether or not and object is coming directly at their face or not. These experiments show that even the undeveloped infant brain has considerable capacity for perceptual capabilities. In contrast, several Empiricists experiments have been done as well. In one such study, scientists sought to determine the effects of depriving developing animals from perceptual stimulations. These tests have consistently shown that the longer the subject is deprived, the more severe the consequences. For example, humans are sometimes born without sight, due to a clouded cornea. Later in life some elect to have surgery to repair this clouded cornea. The result is sight, these people can see but they cannot perceive what it is that they see. As time goes on they slowly learn to distinguish one object from another, but this is however quite easily interrupted. Often changing an objects position or context is quite enough to slow down or prevent recognition. To conclude, although some argue that perception is due to nature, while others argue for nurture, it may in fact be that the two factors are interdependent and rely on each other. Support for this idea comes from an experiment that studied rats and found that those raised in a perceptually restricted environment had smaller brain development than those raised in an enriched environment, suggesting that while we are born with innate capabilities we need the environment to ensure we develop our abilities to perceive well. The perceptual capabilities we have at birth must be strengthened continuously through perceptual stimulation, furthermore, it would seem that perception in general follows the use it or lose it principle. Just as unused muscles become week, so to do our senses if left unused. Nature and nurture are both essential to health y perceptual development; stimulation begins in the womb and quickly follows all the way through adulthood. Sources . â€Å"Nature and Nurture in Perceptual Development.† . www.indiana.edu. Web. 11 Feb 2013. . . â€Å"Experiencing Sensation and Perception.† . physch.hanover.edu. Web. 11 Feb 2013. . Arterberry, M. â€Å"Perceptual Development.† . Colby College. Web. 11 Feb 2013. .